Sulfur-yellow hypocrea (Trichoderma sulphureum) photo and description

3. Varieties:

3.1. Nippon blackberry - Athyrium niponicum

An evergreen fern, the height of which ranges from 30 to 45 cm. The plant has an underground, creeping, thick rhizome. The terrestrial part of the plants is represented by wide, triangular, multiple dissected fronds, often painted in unusual shades. Vayi can be green, silver-blue, purple and even pink.

3.2. Nippon Blackberry Ursulas Red - Athyrium niponicum Ursulas Red

Bright evergreen fern from 15 to 45 cm high. Fronds are wide, triangular, up to 45 cm long, soft, repeatedly dissected. The color of the plant is unusual and very attractive - the edges of the leaves have a silvery-blue or pinkish tint, while the center of the wai is colored deep purple, burgundy or brown.

3.3 Athyrium Japanese

Evergreen decorative deciduous ferns, reaching a height of 30 - 45 cm. Airy, light, soft fronds, reaching a length of 35 - 40 cm, repeatedly dissected. The color of wai is variable and can include green, bluish green, mint, silver and purple hues. The leaf stalks are often colored in a contrasting burgundy hue.

3.4 Athyrium sinese

Large evergreen fern with a thick, erect, short, densely covered with brown scales rhizome. The fronds are wide, triangular, reaching a length of 35 to 90 cm. Shades of wai include all tones of green, yellow, brownish, bright burgundy. Each frond carries a huge number of oblong, oval, serrated leaves with a glossy surface.

3.5. Alpine blacksmith - Athyrium distentifolium

Large, attractive, evergreen ferns with long, oblong - triangular fronds, consisting of numerous plumose leaves. Wai shades include all shades of green. The plant is very lush, voluminous, airy.

3.6 Frizelli Athyrium 'Frizelliae'

Compact, evergreen ferns, reaching only 30 cm in height, are very narrow - not exceeding 2 cm in width and 40 cm in length. Each frond has rounded, serrated, glossy leaves, collected in small, alternately arranged bunches. The leaves can be colored in all shades of green.

3.7. Ear-grouse - Athyrium otophorum

Delicate evergreen fern with a height of 30 to 60 cm, with a short, erect, brown rhizome. The fronds are lacy, repeatedly dissected, airy, on long petioles, broadly - triangular in shape. Fronds can be colored in various shades of green; leaf petioles often have a contrasting burgundy or dark brown color.

morphology

Gender Trichoderma It includes a number of species with no apparent sexual phase. It is characterized by discrete mycelium, usually oval conidia, non-specific hyaline conidiophores, single or clustered phialids, and unicellular conidia.

At the macroscopic level, colonies are easily recognizable by their white-green or yellow-green coloration. In addition, concentric rings are observed in areas with conidia; and unlike colonies, the color is yellow, amber or yellow-greenish.

At the microscopic level, conidiophores are straight, hyaline, branched, and without vertical ones are present in groups or singly. Phialides are pear-shaped, singly or in groups, swollen in the central region and thin at the apex.

The angle of introduction between phialids and conidiophores is straight. Unicellular conidia are oblong or subglobose, smooth or flat. They are green or hyaline, and they appear in masses at the tops of the phialids.

function

One of the main functions of Trichoderma harzianum is its ability to develop a symbiotic relationship with plants. The fungus unfolds and grows in the rhizosphere of the culture, intensifying its development in order to get more room for growth ..

In addition, used as a biological control agent, it has the ability to produce enzymes that attack and suppress phytopathogenic fungi. In fact, incorporation into the substrate or growing area prior to planting is very beneficial.

In this regard, its action as a competitive hyperparasite is based on the production of antifungal metabolites and hydrolytic enzymes. Emerging structural changes at the cellular level, such as vacuolization, granulation, cytoplasmic disintegration and cell lysis, in controlled organisms.

Studies at the almatsigo level have determined root growth when using Trichoderma harzianum at different doses. In this regard, it stimulates seed germination and promotes the growth of new seedlings.

It is advisable to include T. harzianum in the disease control program to take advantage of its antagonistic potential. Trichoderma supplements have been proven to prevent and control pathogens such as Fusarium, Pythium, Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia and Sclerotium.

Interesting Facts

It is noteworthy that the conditionally edible sulfur row is used in various fields. So, it is often dried to a powdery state, after which it is used in cosmetology to prepare face lotions that effectively help fight acne and make the skin less oily. They are used to make antibiotics to fight against tubercle bacillus. Some mushroom pickers are sure that sulfur-yellow rows can be safely eaten if they are cooked correctly.

Having studied the detailed description of the mushroom, experts still advise to be careful and attentive in the forest. Only deliberate, deliberate harvesting of the forest harvest will bring pleasure and will be remembered with pleasant impressions.

Features, time and place of fruiting in nature

Sulfuric ryadovka often grows in deciduous, mixed and coniferous forests, where sandy or lime-rich soils prevail. Sometimes it can be found along roads, on fallen trees and stumps covered with a layer of moss. Mushrooms of this species form mycorrhiza (mutually beneficial alliance) with oak, beech and occasionally with fir or pine. Rows are widespread throughout Europe - from the cold Arctic zone to the Mediterranean. Quite often found throughout Russia. The fruiting period begins in August and lasts until October inclusive.

Tricholoma sulphureum has several varieties and can only be distinguished by the following characteristics:

Tricholoma sulphureum var. Hemisulphureum - the plates of the hymenophore are distinguished by a gray-lilac or pinkish color;
Tricholoma sulphureum var. Rhodophyllum - grows exclusively in the alpine zone and has a light color;
Tricholoma sulphureum var. Pallidum - can be recognized by its lighter tone and pleasant smell;
Tricholomopsis decora - the leg is hollow inside, brown-brown scales are visible on the cap, the pulp has a woody flavor.

Sometimes, due to the reddish fibers located in the center of the cap, the sulfur row can be confused with Tricholoma bufonium. However, it grows only in Central Europe, preferring places under fir trees.

Difference from greenfinch

Greenfinch

Mushroom pickers often notice a clear external similarity between sulfur rows and greenfinches, which are also called green rows. They differ in the following characteristics:

the cap is greenish-yellow in color, darkens as the mushroom matures. The inside is dense and fleshy;
the skin is slightly sticky, smooth and thick;
leg - has a cylindrical shape, short and often immersed in the soil;
the color of the leg is yellowish or greenish, with brown scales at the base;
the flesh on the cut is white, dense, with an unexpressed taste and a mealy odor.

Greenfinches grow mainly in dry pine and sometimes mixed forests. They bear fruit on sandy and sandy loam soils from September to the onset of frost.

Poisoning signs and first aid

Most mycologists agree that a fruiting body like Tricholoma sulphureum is inedible. And in Russia it is considered a poisonous species at all, which has a weak toxicity.The fungus causes mild forms of toxicoinfection (intestinal disorders). No fatalities were recorded.

The signs of poisoning with ryadovka sulfur do not differ at all from the symptoms of intoxication with other poisonous mushrooms. They appear 40 minutes after eating the fruiting body and are observed for several hours. Often victims complain of such ailments:

abdominal pain;
headache;
weakness;
vomiting and nausea.

Before the doctor arrives, it is necessary to stay in bed and drink as much liquid as possible (chilled strong tea and water). It is also recommended to take several activated charcoal tablets.

Taxonomy, characteristics and description of the structure

Sulfuric ryadovka, which is also sometimes called sulfur-yellow ryadovka, belongs to the family of row or Tricholomaceae, the class of agaricomycetes and the genus of ryadovki. Its Latin name is Tricholoma sulphureum. It is a poisonous fungus that often causes mild stomach poisoning.

The cap of the fruiting body reaches 4–8 cm in diameter and is initially distinguished by a hemispherical convex shape. Later, it becomes prostrate, slightly tuberous and thin-fleshy. Sometimes in the middle you can see a small depression. The main color of the cap is sulfur-yellow; closer to the center it turns into brownish or ocher.

The lower part of the cap with a spore-bearing layer (hymenophore) is lamellar. The plates are located infrequently to each other, have a thick, wide and notched shape with uneven edges, adhere to the pedicle. Their color is the same as that of the cap - sulfur-yellow. The spore powder is whitish, and the spores are ellipsoidal or almond-shaped.

Having cut off the sulfur-yellow row, you can see that its pulp is distinguished by a greenish, sulfur-yellow color and a distinct odor, which is similar to hydrogen sulfide, tar, acetylene or light gas. Her taste is bitter, mealy and rather unpleasant.

The length of the stem of Tricholoma sulphureum is 3-11 cm, and the diameter is 0.5-1.8 cm. Its cylindrical shape can be thickened or, conversely, narrowed upwards. At the same time, its upper part has a bright yellow tint, and below it is sulfur-yellow with fibers of a darker color. In mature representatives of the species, it is covered with brown scales.

A bit of history

For the first time, sulfur rows were described in 1871 by the German mycologist and biologist Paul Kummer.

Morphology

Fruit bodies (perithecia) are soft, fleshy, light, brightly colored. They are formed on the surface or inside the substrate, on the mycelial plexus (subiculum), stroma of the same nature as perithecia. Located singly or in groups. Perithecia are characterized by a well-developed peridium and an ostiola lined with paraphysis. There are no real paraphysis. Well developed apical paraphysis - sterile hyphae, ingrown into the cavity of the young perithetium from above.

Subiculum - superficial plexus of the mycelium on the substrate. It is formed in representatives of the family Hypomycetes, parasitic on fungi.

Stromas - are divided into two types according to the nature of the location of the fruiting bodies:

basal, with superficial perithecia, immersed in the stroma only at the base. Stromas of this type are small (up to 1 cm), cushion-shaped or hemispherical. They can be larger, standing, branching;
compact, with submerged perithecia. Their shape is varied: prostrate, cushion-shaped, cylindrical, clavate, capitate. Sometimes they reach large sizes.

The color of the stroma of the hypocraneous is light - white or yellowish. It can be bright - yellow, orange, red, blue or purple. Dark stromas and perithecia are rare. In this case, they are dark green, brownish, black, bluish black.

Asci are cylindrical or clavate.They move away from the bottom and lateral walls of the perithetium, located in the intervals between the apical paraphysis. When perithecium ripens, the paraphysis is usually completely destroyed.

Definitioner

Basidia (Basidia)

Lat. Basidia. A specialized structure of sexual reproduction in fungi, inherent only in Basidiomycetes. Basidia are terminal (end) elements of hyphae of various shapes and sizes, on which spores develop exogenously (outside).

Basidia are diverse in structure and method of attachment to hyphae.

According to the position relative to the axis of the hypha, to which they are attached, three types of basidia are distinguished:

Apical basidia are formed from the terminal cell of the hypha and are located parallel to its axis.

Pleurobasidia are formed from lateral processes and are located perpendicular to the axis of the hypha, which continues to grow and can form new processes with basidia.

Subasidia are formed from a lateral process, turned perpendicular to the axis of the hypha, which, after the formation of one basidium, stops its growth.

Based on morphology:

Holobasidia - unicellular basidia, not divided by septa (see Fig. A, D.).

Phragmobasidia are divided by transverse or vertical septa, usually into four cells (see Fig. B, C).

By type of development:

Heterobasidia consists of two parts - hypobasidia and epibasidia developing from it, with or without partitions (see Fig. C, B) (see Fig. D).

Homobasidia is not divided into hypo- and epibasidia and in all cases is considered holobasidia (Fig. A).

Basidia is the place of karyogamy, meiosis and the formation of basidiospores. Homobasidia, as a rule, is not functionally divided, and meiosis follows karyogamy in it. However, basidia can be divided into probasidia - the site of karyogamy and metabasidia - the site of meiosis. Probasidium is often a dormant spore, for example in rust fungi. In such cases, probazidia grows with metabasidia, in which meiosis occurs and on which basidiospores are formed (see Fig. E).

See Karyogamy, Meiosis, Gifa.

Pileipellis

Lat. Pileipellis, skin - differentiated surface layer of the cap of agaricoid basidiomycetes. The structure of the skin in most cases differs from the inner flesh of the cap and may have a different structure. The structural features of pileipellis are often used as diagnostic features in descriptions of fungi species.

According to their structure, they are divided into four main types: cutis, trichoderma, hymeniderma and epithelium.

See Agaricoid fungi, Basidiomycete, Cutis, Trichoderma, Gimeniderm, Epithelium.

Trichoderma (Trichoderma)

The type of cap skin, usually consists of straight, septate elements, located more or less perpendicular to the surface and laid both at the same and at different levels; the ends of the hyphae can be morphologically modified and represent dermatocystids. The surface of the cap is velvety to almost felt.

Lat. Trichoderm.

Trichoderma, in turn, is subdivided into intertwined trichoderma and irregular trichoderma.

Intertwined trichoderm (Intricate trichoderm) - trichoderm, consisting of intertwined hyphae, located not parallel to each other and forming a tomentose pubescence.

Irregular trichoderm - Trichoderma, consisting of irregularly branching hyphae.

See Dermatotsistida, Hypha, Septa.

Cutis

The type of cap skin, consists of creeping non-gelatinized hyphae located parallel to the surface. The surface of the cap looks smooth.

Lat. Cutis.

See Gifa.

Biology

Representatives of the order Hypocreaceae are saprotrophs in the soil, on wood, and various plant residues. In addition, the order includes a large number of phytopathogenic species that parasitize many higher plants, fungi, insects, lichens, myxomycetes. Some representatives of this strand are coprotrophs. In particular, the genus Selinia (Selinia). There are known species that live in the seas on wood submerged in water.

In the development cycle of species of the order, there is often a conidial stage, which predominates over the marsupial (teleomorphic) in duration. Usually conidia develop on a living plant, and ascospores - on dead plant parts, under saprotrophic conditions. The conidial stage in some species plays an important role in distribution. Sometimes it completely replaces the marsupial.

Conidia are usually phialospores that form on solitary conidiophores or conidiophores collected in sporodochia or in pycnidia; in a few representatives of the order, aleurospores and blastospores form.

Mechanisms of action

Controlling effect of Trichoderma fungi This is confirmed by different mechanisms of action on the development of phytopathogenic fungi. Among the main mechanisms that have a direct effect are competition for space and nutrients, mycoparasitism and antibiosis ..

The biocontrolling effect of Trichoderma harzianum is enhanced by the ability to colonize the rhizosphere of plants. In addition, mechanisms such as the secretion of enzymes and the production of inhibitory compounds act as a biocontrol effect ..

On the other hand, mechanisms are presented, the indirect function of which contributes to the bioregulatory effect. These include the ability to activate compounds associated with resistance in the plant, detoxification of toxins, and deactivation of enzymes ..

The ability of a fungus to help dissolve nutrients that are not available to plants in their natural form is a process that improves the nutrient conditions of the environment to provide nutrients to the crop.

Likewise, when it develops under favorable conditions, it is able to abundantly colonize the rhizosphere of plants, which allows it to create an environment conducive to radical development, increasing the plant's resistance to stress.

competition

Competition is defined as unequal behavior between two people to satisfy the same requirement, be it substrate or nutrient. The success of the competition stems from the ability of one organism to overcome the ability of the other.

Trichoderma harzianum They are highly antagonistic because they have a fast pace of development. This effect of biocontrol is facilitated by its broad ecology of adaptation and the ability to adapt to adverse conditions.

In addition, it has an excellent ability to mobilize and use soil nutrients, mainly nitrogen, carbohydrates and polysaccharides. Thus, it is able to quickly colonize its environment, preventing other microorganisms from multiplying in the same habitat.

micoparasitism

Mycoparasitism is defined as an antagonistic symbiotic interaction between a fungus and a pathogen. This mechanism is interfered with by the extracellular enzymes of the cell wall of parasitic fungi: chitinase and cellulase.

This action occurs in four stages: chemotrophic growth, recognition, adhesion and curling, and lytic activity. In the last stage, the fungus generates extracellular lytic enzymes, destroys the cell wall of the pathogen and facilitates the penetration of hyphae.

Trichoderma harzianum, during mycoparasitism, it grows chemotropically in relation to the pathogen, it curls up and penetrates into the daughters of the host. Through the generation of special enzymes and the degradation of the cell wall of the pathogen, this causes the weakening of the phytopathogen.

Mycoparasitism as a mechanism of antagonistic action in T. harzianum It depends on various factors. The development of each stage is due to pathogenic microorganisms, biotrophic or necrotrophic action of the antagonist, and environmental conditions.

Chemotrophic growth: This refers to the positive forward growth of an organism towards a chemical stimulus. Trichoderma detects the presence of the pathogen and its hyphae grow and reach the body in response to a chemical stimulus.
recognition: scientific studies have determined that Trichoderma is an antagonist of specific phytopathogens. Molecules such as carbohydrate lectins present in the host render it susceptible to being parasitized by the Trichoderma fungus.
Adhesion and winding: Trichoderma hyphae They have the ability to adhere to the host, forming hook-and-appressor-like structures. This process includes enzymatic processes and the antagonistic connection of sugar from the wall of the fungus with lecithin in the wall of the phytopathogen ..
Lytic activity: degradation of the cell wall of the phytopathogen, facilitating the penetration of hyphae from Trichoderma. The lytic enzymes involved in this process are mainly chitinases, glucanases and proteases ..

antibiosis

This is the direct action of volatile or non-volatile organic compounds produced by Trichoderma on a susceptible host. Various strains of T. harzianum produce antibiotics or toxic metabolites that inhibit the development of other microorganisms.

taxonomy

Paul, Trichoderma spp., Was originally described by Persoon (1794) to classify four unrelated species at the present time. Among them: Trichoderma viride, Xylohipha nigresce, Sporotrichum aureum, and Trichotecium roseum.

Subsequently, several classifications were made based on microscopic characteristics, size and presence of phialides. Rafai (1969) then reviewed the genus and described 9 species of Trichoderma spp., Where I include Trichoderma harzianum.

T. harzianum species (Rapai, 1969), belongs to the genre Trichoderma, family Hypocreaceae, order Hypocreales, class Sordariomycetes, subdivision Pezizomycotina, subdivision Ascomycota, kingdom of mushrooms.

Taxonomic studies of Trichoderma harzianum have been supported in changes in DNA polymorphism using PCR techniques. In the genre of T. harzianum (Rifai), four biological forms have been differentiated: Th1, Th2, Th3 and Th4.

Characteristics of families

Family Nectriaceae

Family Nectriaceae - superficial perithecia, formed in the substrate or stroma. The latter is small, cushion-shaped. Conidial stages belong to the genera Tubercularia, Cylindrocarpon, Fusarium.

Family Hypomycetaceae

Perithecia are pear-shaped, formed on the mycelium, in the stroma or subiculum.

Aski - with a thickened shell in the upper part in the form of a cap with a pore in the center.

Ascospores are fusiform, unicellular or bicellular, with pointed appendages at the ends.

Representatives of the family Hypomycetaceae develop on the fruiting bodies of other fungi, mainly Basidiomycetes, of the order Agaricales and Aphyllophora. Sometimes they live on Ascomycetes.

Parasitism of this group of fungi of varying degrees of specialization - from biotrophic to necrotrophic. The latter can develop saprotrophically on the soil surface, wood, dead fruiting bodies of polypores.

The developmental cycle often includes a conidial stage. The species of the family are characterized by pleomorphism - the formation of more than one conidial stage. In this case, spores of the conidial stages of the same species develop according to different types. Usually, an anamorph develops on a living host, and a teleomorph on its dead parts.

The most significant genera of the family: Hypomyces, Apiocrea, Peckiella.

Family Hypocreaceae

Perithecia are completely submerged in well-developed stromas. Most species of the saprotroph family grow on wood and plant debris, some coprophiles (develop on manure). The most significant genera are Hypocrea, Podostroma.

traits

Aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems

These fungi are characterized by distribution in terrestrial ecosystems (agricultural soils, pastures, forests and deserts) and aquatic ecosystems. Some species live freely in the soil, opportunists, plant symbionts, while others are mycoparasites ..

They also have the ability to colonize various environments due to their great reproductive capacity. They can adapt and survive in extreme conditions of temperature, salinity and pH.

Reproduction and nutrition

In their vegetative state, they represent mycelium or simple haploid septa, and its wall consists of chitin and glucans. They are facultative anaerobes and reproduce asexually by conidia.

This species has low nutrient requirements, although organic matter and moisture contribute to its growth. The optimum temperature range for its growth and development is 25º to 30ºC.

habitat

T. harzianum.It can be located in various organic materials and soils, they are widespread due to their great adaptability. Some species prefer dry and temperate places and other wet and cold places.

In particular, these fungi, as endophytic organisms, compete with the rhizosphere of the plant, promoting the colonization of the root surface. In fact, they penetrate through the intercellular spaces, up to the first or second layer of cells.

importance

This group of fungi is of great importance for plants, as they contribute to the fight against phytopathogenic fungi. Indeed, they are widely recognized for their ability to produce toxins and antibiotics that control various pathogens.

Isolates of the genus Trichoderma They are among the most widely used biological control agents in agriculture. Research and development work has made it possible to test their effective control, as they affect a large number of soil pathogens.

Classification

Genus Trichoderma was described by Christian Person as part of gasteromycetes. Genus Hypocrea described by Elias Fry in 1821. The relationship between these genera by example Trichoderma viride and Hypocrea rufa was proven by Louis Tulane, Charles Tulane and Oscar Brefeld. According to various estimates, this genus includes from 200 to 400 species. Some of the described species may turn out to be synonyms of other species, and some of them, possibly, belong to other genera. Clan position Trichoderma debatable. Only part of the species identified as Trichoderma are anamorphs of the genus Ascomycetes Hypocrea, others are referred to as imperfect mushrooms.

Some species

Trichoderma citrinum (Pers.) Jaklitsch et al., 2014 - Lemon yellow hypocrea
Trichoderma atroviride P. Karst., 1892
Trichoderma aureoviride Rifai, 1969
Trichoderma citrinoviride Bissett, 1984
Trichoderma gelatinosum P. Chaverri & Samuels, 2003 - Gelatinous hypocrea
Trichoderma hamatum (Bonord.) Bainier, 1906 - Trichoderma hooked
Trichoderma harzianum Rifai, 1969
Trichoderma koningii Oudem., 1902 - Trichoderma Koninga
Trichoderma longibrachiatum Rifai, 1969
Trichoderma minutisporum Bissett, 1992
Trichoderma pulvinatum (Fuckel) Jaklitsch & Voglmayr, 2013 - Cushion hypocrea
Trichoderma reesei E. G. Simmons, 1977
Trichoderma strictipile Bissett, 1992
Trichoderma virens (J.H. Mill. Et al.) Arx, 1987
Trichoderma viride Pers., 1794 - Green Trichoderma

Economic value

Many representatives of the genus of the anamorphic stage have found wide practical application. The enzymes produced by these mushrooms are used in food production and in the pulp, paper and textile industries. With their help, alcohol and feed additives are produced. The ability of these fungi to break down cellulose is used for waste disposal, soil cleaning and composting. Antibiotics make it possible to obtain drugs for the biological control of pathogenic organisms and the activation of plant growth, and are also used in the creation of transgenic plants.The ability of trichoderma metabolites to reduce the vital activity of insects was found.

applications

Trichoderma harzianum It is widely used as a biological regulator due to its rapid growth and development. In addition, it promotes the development of various enzymes capable of destroying other phytopathogenic fungi ..

This fungus is a natural agent that is not aggressive towards plants or soil. Used as a biocontroller, it does not report crop toxicity, it also reduces environmental impact due to the lack of chemicals in the soil.

The biocontrol effect of T. harzianum is carried out depending on the conditions in which the incidence of phytopathogens occurs. The control method and method of application is carried out in the structure, area and space that you want to protect.

Typically, control is carried out through controlled application to seed, to substrate in beds, or directly to the ground. Spraying on leaves, flowers and fruits is common; and research has recently been done to prevent the attacks of pathogens after harvest.

Biological control in seeds

Seed treatment with T. harzianum is focused on protecting seeds from internal or soil pathogens. In addition, protect the underground parts of the new plant in a timely manner after germination.

In fact, after the seeds are inoculated with the fungus, they are able to colonize the rhizosphere of the plant, exerting their biocontrol effect. In addition, the amount of fungus used in the seed is lower compared to the amount used on the cultivated land.

For the application of Trichoderma On seeds, different methods are used: using dry powder, using a biological product in the form of a paste, dissolving in dry clay or coating with granules ..

Biological control in soil

The soil is a favorable environment for controlling pathogens with Trichoderma harzianum. In fact, the rhizosphere of plants is the most favorable environment for its antagonistic action ..

The application of the fungus to the seeds is done in order to locally install the biocontroller in the rhizosphere. Therefore, biological control in the soil is directly related to the application of the fungus to the seed.

Other methods include direct application to the furrow or funnel, during sowing, or during cleaning and hilling of the plant. In this case, it is applied in the form of a powder, granulated, or included together with organic additives.

Control over the hardwood surface

Biological control with Trichoderma In deciduous areas such as flowers, fruits and foliage, this depends on the environmental conditions. Low availability of nutrients, temperature fluctuations, solar radiation and wind are conditions that make it difficult for the fungus to develop.

Therefore, formulations intended for use with an antagonist must contain adherents and nutrients that facilitate colonization of Trichoderma. The moderate effectiveness of this method and its high cost have encouraged the study of new control strategies at the leaf level.