In the second half of the XX century. there have been major territorial and structural changes in global agricultural production. The general increase in the level of material and technical equipment and marketability, the process of globalization has noticeably accelerated shifts in all regions. Changes in land use are a direct indicator. Although the traditional concentration of agriculture in the temperate and hot zone remains, the agricultural development of different natural zones remains uneven. The highest share of used land is in the zones of chernozem and chestnut soils (almost 1/3), brown forest, brown and gray-brown soils are intensively developed. Agricultural land occupies 4.8 billion hectares, i.e. 37% of the total land area of the world. The growth in the area of agricultural land, which was more active until the 90s, has now slowed down for social and environmental reasons, and the limited land resources are also reflected.
In the 50 years after the Second World War, due to irrational use (overgrazing, improper irrigation, deforestation, the use of soil-depleting farming systems) degraded 1.2 billion hectares that were withdrawn from production. Nowadays 17% of all vegetation lands are degraded; they suffer from erosion, salinization, waterlogging, physical and chemical degradation. The lowest percentage of degraded land is in North America (7%), while the highest in Western Europe (23%), the degree of land degradation is quite high in Africa (17%) and Asia (18%), below the average in South America ( 14%) and Oceania (12%). Every year 6-12 million hectares fall out of agricultural use, while newly developed lands make up only 4-5 million hectares.
In addition, it is known that 9/10 of the land has serious limitations for the development of agriculture of a purely natural nature - climatic (droughts), soil, hydrological, glaciological (permafrost, i.e. permafrost). The largest areas of such unfavorable lands are in Asia, Australia, South America and Africa. The situation in Europe and North America is much better in this respect. As a result, agricultural development (the share of agricultural land in the total land area) is currently the highest in Australia and Oceania (58%), Europe (47%) and Asia (42%). Among the countries with the largest tracts of agricultural land are China (496 million hectares), Australia (465), the United States (427) and Russia (210 million hectares).
The structure of agricultural land in the world as a whole is characterized by the predominance of natural pastures (70.1%), while arable land occupies 27.8%, and perennial plantations - only 2.1%. Only in Europe is the share of pastures significantly lower than arable land; in other regions of the world, pastures dominate. Ukraine, Denmark, Bangladesh and India stand out for their high plowing capacity. The United States (179 million hectares), India (170 million hectares), China (135 million hectares) and Russia (130 million hectares) have a large area of arable land. Canada and Brazil also have large arable lands. The provision of arable land per capita is one of the most important indicators of agricultural potential. The general world tendency - a decrease in this indicator - for 1980-1994. from 0.3 to 0.24 ha. There are huge contrasts in land provision between the countries: if in Kazakhstan there are 2.05 hectares of arable land per capita, in Canada - 1.62, then in China - 0.08, and in Japan - 0.03 hectares of arable land.
In developed countries, the process of reduction of arable area is mainly taking place, since the growth of production is determined by intensification. Arable land also decreased in countries with economies in transition, for example, in Russia in the 90s. on 4 million hectares. In developing countries, there are examples of the growth of arable land due to the development of new lands (Brazil), but in some places it also decreased (Indonesia).
The category of cultivated land includes, in addition to arable land, and perennial plantations. While the area of arable land (1.3 billion hectares) in the world has stabilized over the past 15 years, the land under perennial crops (perennial grasses, shrubs, trees) has expanded (up to 129 million hectares in 1996). This is due to an increase in the production of fruit and industrial crops (grapes, citrus fruits, coffee, cocoa, tea, rubber plants). The largest areas of these crops are in Asian states (Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, China, India), a number of countries in South America (for example, Brazil) and Europe (for example, Spain). In Malaysia and Sri Lanka, perennial plantations exceed arable land.
The area of natural pastures has also remained relatively stable over the past decades (3.4 billion hectares, 1995), although in fact we can talk more about multidirectional fluctuations in its size associated with abandoning arable land or plowing, deforestation, etc. The most extensive pastures are found in Australia (425 million hectares), China (400 million hectares), the United States (239 million hectares), as well as in Kazakhstan and Argentina. The role of cultural pastures is growing, especially in developed countries. Traditionally, they are the most common in Europe. Dry steppes, savannas, semi-deserts, and tundra are mostly used as natural forage lands.
The structure of land is related to the sectoral structure of agriculture, but far from determining it. Often countries with a high share of arable land have livestock specialization, because they are based on the use of field fodder.
Crop production prevails in the sectoral structure of agricultural production in the world. Economically developed countries are characterized by an approximately equal ratio of livestock and crop production, although at times livestock production comes to the fore. There are very few developing countries where animal husbandry dominates due to natural factors (Mongolia, Uruguay, Mauritania).
The production links between agriculture and animal husbandry, limited at an earlier stage of commodity specialization, are now being strengthened by the development of fodder production. In plant growing, 6 thousand species of cultivated plants are used, but about 800 species are most widespread. Scientific and technological progress has led to a sharp reduction in the biological diversity of both plants and animals at agricultural enterprises, which entails an increase in the loss of uniform crops due to diseases, weeds, and also limits the possibilities of breeding and biotechnology.
The growth in demand and the increase in the number of inhabitants of the planet, especially urban dwellers, stimulated the development of such important crop industries as grain farming (food and forage crops), fodder production, vegetable growing and fruit growing. This can be seen in commercial crop production in developed countries of Europe, North America and Australia. At the same time, in Asia, Africa and South America, the main directions of agriculture remain consumer and export. The first includes grain farming and the cultivation of tubers and root crops, the second - the production of tropical fruit and stimulating, as well as industrial crops.
The structure of crop production can be judged by the composition of gross or marketable production, as well as by the structure of crops. For example, in India, 7/10 of the crop is for food crops, and the rest is for industrial and forage crops. On the contrary, in the United States, fodder crops occupy half of the crops, while food and industrial crops - 1/4 each.
Grain farming, ensuring food security of the population, is the basis of crop production and all agriculture in the vast majority of agricultural regions of the world. Grain and grain products are the second most valuable (after meat and meat products) item in the world agricultural turnover. The growth of grain production in the second half of the XX century. in most countries was due to increased yields, rather than expansion of crops. The most significant increase in grain crops occurred in the USSR in the 50s.as a result of plowing virgin lands. In the 70s. the world food crisis caused by a poor harvest in the USSR and China was accompanied by an increase in crops, harvests and exports in a number of wheat exporting countries (USA, Canada, Australia). In the 80s. aggravation of competition in the world market led to a reduction in crops, and the deterioration of the environmental situation also affected. The growth rate of grain production began to decline, although in general, over the past 50 years, grain harvest in the world has tripled, reaching almost 2 billion tons per year (on average for 1996/98). The "green revolution" caused by the creation and distribution of high-yielding varieties of cereals (wheat, rice), gave a new impetus to the development of grain farming, raising yields and harvests in a number of countries of Latin America and Asia in the 60-80s. Over 30 years, the grain yield has increased from 18 to 29 kg / ha, while grain crops, having reached a maximum in 1979/81, began to decline (on average for 1996/98 693 million hectares). After the collapse of the USSR, the decline in agriculture in the CIS countries manifested itself in grain production (a decline in yields, a decrease in crops and harvests). The opposite trend was noted in China, where social restructuring was accompanied by an increase in grain production, the introduction of high-yielding varieties. An increase in grain harvests with reduced sowing due to an increase in yields took place in developed countries of Europe and North America until the 80s, later yields stabilized and even began to fall.
The geography of the world grain economy has changed. The role of Asia has significantly increased, which now accounts for almost half of the total grain harvest. The second place is occupied by North America (1/5 of the world harvest). Until the 90s. Eastern Europe was inferior, and at times even ahead of North America, retaining mainly the third place, but now, in the transition period, it has lost its former positions. Similar grain harvests are provided by Western Europe, which previously lagged far behind.
The list of the top 10 grain producing countries has changed moderately over this period, but the position of individual states has become significantly different. Leader until the 80s. remained the United States, but later they were overtaken by the PRC. India also overtook the formerly third-ranked USSR and now Russia. Among the Western European states, France, which has significantly increased grain harvests, and the Federal Republic of Germany stand out. In the New World, large grain producers, in addition to the United States, are Canada, Brazil and Argentina, and in Asia, in addition to China and India, Indonesia and Turkey.
The amount of grain collected per capita determines the provision of countries with food and fodder for livestock. On average, due to population growth over the past decade, the amount of grain per capita per year has decreased from 392 to 336 kg (1995). The maximum grain supply was achieved in Canada (1716 kg), Hungary (1204 kg) and the USA (1065 kg). Many large countries in terms of population produce little grain per capita: in China - 333 kg, in Japan - 128 kg. This situation is typical of most developing countries, where cereals are the main part of the diet. In the CIS, where until recently there were high rates, there was a sharp drop in them, for example, in Kazakhstan, almost 3 times, in Russia - by 1/3 (up to 429 kg).
The main grain crops in the world include wheat, rice, corn, barley, oats, millet and sorghum, and rye. Cereals are subdivided into food and fodder (forage) crops. The latter usually include corn, barley, oats, although almost all cereals are multipurpose. The share of feed grain is associated with the development of intensive livestock farming and the general level of well-being of the inhabitants. In developed countries, up to 2/3 of the grain is used for fodder, and in developing countries, almost all grain is used as food.
The marketability and exportability of grain production is not the same: the highest export is wheat, while only a small share of harvested rice, millet and sorghum is exported. In the world grain market, the main commodities are wheat, feed grains (corn) and rice.
Wheat is the most famous and oldest (originating from Western Asia) bread crop of the temperate zone, now it is widespread throughout the world in a wide variety of natural conditions. Most of the crops are cultivated with varieties of common wheat used in bakery. More productive winter wheat grown in areas with mild winters prevails; in areas with a continental climate (severe winters, hot summers), spring wheat is typical. Thus, in the United States, 4/5 of the total harvest falls on winter wheat. Durum wheat, which is used for the production of pasta, is concentrated in Southern Europe, North America and the CIS countries (Kazakhstan).
In terms of the area under crops (228 million hectares) and harvest (595 million tons), wheat currently ranks first among the world's cereal crops (average annual data for 1996/98). In the second half of the XX century. the geography of wheat production has changed significantly. In the course of the Green Revolution, with the creation of high-yielding dwarf wheat varieties, its world center moved back to Asia. Due to social cataclysms, the role of the previously dominant Eastern Europe and the CIS countries has decreased, there has been a certain drop in the share of North America and the stabilization of the share of Western Europe. Now Asia gives 2/5 of the world collection, Western Europe - 1/5, North America - 1/6.
Until the 90s. the first place in the collection of wheat was firmly held by the USSR, followed by the United States and China. Later, China became the leader, where in the mid-90s. wheat harvests increased 5 times compared to 1949/51, reaching 115 million tons (on average for 1996/98). In the United States, over the past two decades, harvests have stabilized at the level of 60 million tons. The fruits of the "green revolution" clearly manifested themselves in India, which increased production by almost 10 times and took third place.
The main areas of wheat cultivation were formed in the 19th century. in the steppe zone of all continents; they were distinguished by high marketability and orientation towards the external market. In the XX century. almost all of them retained their specialization; large mechanized farms are typical here. The natural fertility of the soil makes it possible to obtain considerable yields with less fertilization. However, the average world wheat yield (26 kg / ha) is not very high compared to other cereals such as rice and corn. Traditionally, the main wheat producers - Russia, USA, China, Canada, India, Australia - have an extensive farm. Intensive wheat production developed successfully after the Second World War in Western Europe, where an average of 53 c / ha is now obtained, with the United Kingdom (77 c / ha), Germany (73 c / ha) and France (71 c / ha) particularly distinguished. This allowed France and the UK to significantly increase their fees. In North America, yields are much lower (USA - 27, Canada - 22 kg / ha). In Russia, the yield of wheat is falling, sowing and harvesting have decreased (on average for 1996/98, the yield was 14 c / ha, sowing - 26 million hectares, harvest - 35 million tons). Placing wheat in most countries in the drought-prone "risky farming" zone leads to large yield fluctuations.
Almost 1/5 of the world's wheat harvest goes to the international market. The main exporters are the countries of North America (USA, Canada) and South America (Argentina), Australia and some Western European countries (France). The main importers are China, Japan, Brazil, Republic of Korea, Algeria, Russia, as well as many developing countries. For the latter, food aid in the form of wheat supplies from the United States and other exporting countries is of particular importance.
Rice. Originating from South and Southeast Asia, this tropical food crop is now widespread on all continents, although rice cultivation remains most concentrated in Asia. Rice is very demanding for warmth and moisture, for soil fertility. It is grown mainly on irrigated lands in the tropical and subtropical zones. For half a century, rice harvests have more than tripled, with a corresponding increase in the sown area and yield.Now crops occupy 151 million hectares, which, with a yield of 38 c / ha, gives an average of 578 million tons (1996/98). A sharp expansion of rice cultivation took place in the 60s. due to the increase in the area of irrigated land, and the greatest leaps in productivity occurred during the first (60s) and second (80s) "green revolutions".
Asian countries receive 9/10 of the world's rice harvest, the rest comes from South America, Africa and North America; rice growing is also found in Europe and Australia. The main rice producers are traditionally China (198 million tons, i.e. 1/3 of the world's harvest), India (121 million tons), as well as Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam. Thailand, Myanmar. Japan, Brazil and the United States receive large fees.
In Southeast and South Asia, a specific type of small-scale labor-intensive irrigated rice cultivation emerged and developed. A completely different type of large-scale commodity high-intensity mechanized economy was formed in the south of the United States and in the south of France.
Since ancient times, rice has become the staple food of the Asian population, later it was mastered by Africans and residents of Europe and America. The exportability of rice is much lower than that of wheat. Only 6% of the world harvest of this culture is exported. The main importers are Asian countries (Indonesia, the Philippines, China, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates), Latin America (Brazil, Cuba) and Africa (South Africa). Rice growing of the main exporters - Thailand and the USA - is highly exported. For example, the United States exported half of its entire crop. In recent years, India, Pakistan, Vietnam and China have also exported rice.
Corn. In ancient times, this American plant was a food crop of the Indians of North America, but later spread to other continents as not only food, but also fodder and industrial crops. Corn is a thermophilic, light-loving, soil-demanding plant of a subtropical climate, belongs to the category of row crops. For 50 years, crops have grown by almost 1/2, and harvests by 4 times, mainly due to higher yields. In the 90s. corn - the second grain crop in the world occupied 140 million hectares and with a yield of 42 centners / hectare gave 592 million tons. high-yielding hybrid maize varieties were developed, which ensured a triumphant increase in harvests in the United States after World War II. A similar situation developed in the 70s. in Western Europe. For half a century, the sowing of this crop for grain, silage and green fodder has grown due to the growing demand in animal husbandry.
Geography of the main branches of agriculture (part 1)
Geography of the main branches of agriculture (part 2)
Geography of the main branches of agriculture (part 3)
farm south america
In chapter Hometasks to the question of agriculture in south america. about half a page PLEASE Diana Gamartz the best answer is On the! (Take Central America out of the text and Mexico too)
The leading direction of agriculture in all countries, with the exception of Uruguay and Argentina, is crop production. Sugarcane is cultivated in Central America and the West Indies, as well as in eastern South America. The largest sugarcane producer in the world is Brazil; this crop is of significant importance in the economy of Mexico, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Guyana. The south of Brazil is a large, regional soybean growing area - a leguminous crop, the production of which Brazil ranks second in the world after the United States. Coffee is grown almost everywhere in Latin America, but Brazil is traditionally the main producer of this tonic culture, holding the world leadership for many decades in a row. The most appreciated coffee is grown in Colombia and Central America on mountain soils in the partial shade of tall trees. Brazil, the Dominican Republic, and Ecuador are the leaders in the production of cocoa beans. Banana plantations occupy large areas in Latin America (sometimes they are even called "banana republics"), in Colombia, Ecuador.The largest exporter of bananas in the world is Ecuador, followed by Costa Rica. Cotton growing is widespread mainly in Brazil, Argentina, Mexico. Cereals for domestic consumption are grown in almost all countries in the region, but only Argentina has a large grain export (mainly wheat). The income from the so-called shadow or criminal crop production cannot be underestimated. Planting coca bushes in hard-to-reach areas of Colombia, Peru, Brazil and Venezuela gives their owners fabulous profits. The United States remains the main consumer of Latin American cocaine.
Livestock raising for meat production is widespread in Argentina and Uruguay, where a cult of brave and courageous gaucho shepherds has developed. The same countries export meat and skins of livestock. The largest fishing area has developed off the western coast of Latin America in the zone of the cold Peruvian Current. Peru and Chile are among the three largest fishing powers in the world.
Original source link
Answer from
2 answers
Hey! Here is a selection of topics to answer your question: South American agriculture. about half a page PLEASE
Answer from David Senatorov
The leading direction of agriculture in all countries, with the exception of Uruguay and Argentina, is crop production. Sugarcane is cultivated in Central America and the West Indies, as well as in eastern South America. The largest sugarcane producer in the world is Brazil; this crop is of significant importance in the economy of Mexico, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Guyana. The south of Brazil is a large, regional soybean growing area - a leguminous crop, the production of which Brazil ranks second in the world after the United States. Coffee is grown almost everywhere in Latin America, but Brazil is traditionally the main producer of this tonic culture, holding the world leadership for many decades in a row. The most appreciated coffee is grown in Colombia and Central America on mountain soils in the partial shade of tall trees. Brazil, the Dominican Republic, and Ecuador are the leaders in the production of cocoa beans. Banana plantations occupy large areas in Latin America (sometimes they are even called "banana republics"), in Colombia, Ecuador. The largest exporter of bananas in the world is Ecuador, followed by Costa Rica. Cotton growing is widespread mainly in Brazil, Argentina, Mexico. Cereals for domestic consumption are grown in almost all countries in the region, but only Argentina has a large grain export (mainly wheat). The income from the so-called shadow or criminal crop production cannot be underestimated. Planting coca bushes in hard-to-reach areas of Colombia, Peru, Brazil and Venezuela gives their owners fabulous profits. The United States remains the main consumer of Latin American cocaine.
Livestock raising for meat production is widespread in Argentina and Uruguay, where a cult of brave and courageous gaucho shepherds has developed. The same countries export meat and skins of livestock. The largest fishing area has developed off the western coast of Latin America in the zone of the cold Peruvian Current. Peru and Chile are among the three largest fishing powers in the world.
Answer from Natasha Bordunis
Well, for example, sugar cane
Answer from Sasha Cheremisin
think for yourself
Answer from
Zadrot
The leading direction of agriculture in all countries, with the exception of Uruguay and Argentina, is crop production. Sugarcane is cultivated in Central America and the West Indies, as well as in eastern South America. The largest sugarcane producer in the world is Brazil; this crop is of significant importance in the economy of Mexico, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Guyana. The south of Brazil is a large, regional soybean growing area - a leguminous crop, the production of which Brazil ranks second in the world after the United States.Coffee is grown almost everywhere in Latin America, but Brazil is traditionally the main producer of this tonic culture, holding the world leadership for many decades in a row. The most appreciated coffee is grown in Colombia and Central America on mountain soils in the partial shade of tall trees. Brazil, the Dominican Republic, and Ecuador are the leaders in the production of cocoa beans. Banana plantations occupy large areas in Latin America (sometimes they are even called "banana republics"), in Colombia, Ecuador. The largest exporter of bananas in the world is Ecuador, followed by Costa Rica. Cotton growing is widespread mainly in Brazil, Argentina, Mexico. Cereals for domestic consumption are grown in almost all countries in the region, but only Argentina has a large grain export (mainly wheat). The income from the so-called shadow or criminal crop production cannot be underestimated. Planting coca bushes in hard-to-reach areas of Colombia, Peru, Brazil and Venezuela gives their owners fabulous profits. The United States remains the main consumer of Latin American cocaine. my face
Answer from Olga Ignatieva
sugarcane
Answer from AndrewS
f
Answer from
2 answers
Hey! Here are some more topics with the answers you need:
farm south america
In chapter Hometasks to the question of agriculture in south america. about half a page PLEASE Diana Gamartz the best answer is On the! (Take Central America out of the text and Mexico too)
The leading direction of agriculture in all countries, with the exception of Uruguay and Argentina, is crop production. Sugarcane is cultivated in Central America and the West Indies, as well as in eastern South America. The largest sugarcane producer in the world is Brazil; this crop is of significant importance in the economy of Mexico, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Guyana. The south of Brazil is a large, regional soybean growing area - a leguminous crop, the production of which Brazil ranks second in the world after the United States. Coffee is grown almost everywhere in Latin America, but Brazil is traditionally the main producer of this tonic culture, holding the world leadership for many decades in a row. The most appreciated coffee is grown in Colombia and Central America on mountain soils in the partial shade of tall trees. Brazil, the Dominican Republic, and Ecuador are the leaders in the production of cocoa beans. Banana plantations occupy large areas in Latin America (sometimes they are even called "banana republics"), in Colombia, Ecuador. The largest exporter of bananas in the world is Ecuador, followed by Costa Rica. Cotton growing is widespread mainly in Brazil, Argentina, Mexico. Cereals for domestic consumption are grown in almost all countries in the region, but only Argentina has a large grain export (mainly wheat). The income from the so-called shadow or criminal crop production cannot be underestimated. Planting coca bushes in hard-to-reach areas of Colombia, Peru, Brazil and Venezuela gives their owners fabulous profits. The United States remains the main consumer of Latin American cocaine.
Livestock raising for meat production is widespread in Argentina and Uruguay, where a cult of brave and courageous gaucho shepherds has developed. The same countries export meat and skins of livestock. The largest fishing area has developed off the western coast of Latin America in the zone of the cold Peruvian Current. Peru and Chile are among the three largest fishing powers in the world.
Original source link
Answer from
2 answers
Hey! Here is a selection of topics to answer your question: South American agriculture. about half a page PLEASE
Answer from David Senatorov
The leading direction of agriculture in all countries, with the exception of Uruguay and Argentina, is crop production. Sugarcane is cultivated in Central America and the West Indies, as well as in eastern South America. The largest sugarcane producer in the world is Brazil; this crop is of significant importance in the economy of Mexico, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Guyana. South of Brazil is a large, regionally important area for growing soybeans - a leguminous crop, the production of which Brazil ranks second in the world after the United States. Coffee is grown almost everywhere in Latin America, but Brazil is traditionally the main producer of this tonic culture, holding the world leadership for many decades in a row. The most appreciated coffee is grown in Colombia and Central America on mountain soils in the partial shade of tall trees. Brazil, the Dominican Republic, and Ecuador are the leaders in the production of cocoa beans. Banana plantations occupy large areas in Latin America (sometimes they are even called "banana republics"), in Colombia, Ecuador. The largest exporter of bananas in the world is Ecuador, followed by Costa Rica. Cotton growing is widespread mainly in Brazil, Argentina, Mexico. Cereals for domestic consumption are grown in almost all countries in the region, but only Argentina has a large grain export (mainly wheat). The income from the so-called shadow or criminal crop production cannot be underestimated. Planting coca bushes in hard-to-reach areas of Colombia, Peru, Brazil and Venezuela gives their owners fabulous profits. The United States remains the main consumer of Latin American cocaine.
Livestock raising for meat production is widespread in Argentina and Uruguay, where a cult of brave and courageous gaucho shepherds has developed. These countries also export meat and animal skins. The largest fishing area has developed along the western coast of Latin America in the zone of the cold Peruvian Current. Peru and Chile are among the three largest fishing powers in the world.
Answer from Natasha Bordunis
Well, for example, sugar cane
Answer from Sasha Cheremisin
think for yourself
Answer from
Zadrot
The leading direction of agriculture in all countries, with the exception of Uruguay and Argentina, is crop production. Sugarcane is cultivated in Central America and the West Indies, as well as in eastern South America. The largest sugarcane producer in the world is Brazil; this crop is of significant importance in the economy of Mexico, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Guyana. South of Brazil is a large, regionally important area for growing soybeans - a leguminous crop, the production of which Brazil ranks second in the world after the United States. Coffee is grown almost everywhere in Latin America, but Brazil is traditionally the main producer of this tonic culture, holding the world leadership for many decades in a row. The most appreciated coffee is grown in Colombia and Central America on mountain soils in the partial shade of tall trees. Brazil, the Dominican Republic, and Ecuador are the leaders in the production of cocoa beans. Banana plantations occupy large areas in Latin America (sometimes they are even called "banana republics"), in Colombia, Ecuador. The largest exporter of bananas in the world is Ecuador, followed by Costa Rica. Cotton growing is widespread mainly in Brazil, Argentina, Mexico. Cereals for domestic consumption are grown in almost all countries in the region, but only Argentina has a large grain export (mainly wheat). The income from the so-called shadow or criminal crop production cannot be underestimated. Planting coca bushes in hard-to-reach areas of Colombia, Peru, Brazil and Venezuela gives their owners fabulous profits. The United States remains the main consumer of Latin American cocaine. my face
Answer from Olga Ignatieva
sugarcane
Answer from AndrewS
f
Answer from
2 answers
Hey! Here are some more topics with the answers you need:
a genus of herbaceous plants of the family of cereals (See.
Cereals
). It unites over 20 wild and cultivated species belonging to 3 series - diploid, tetraploid, hexaploid, differing in the number of chromosomes in somatic cells. The diploid series includes 3 wild species - wild single-awned one-seeded (T. boeoticum), wild two-eyed one-seeded (T. thaoudar), P. Urartu, or one-seeded Urartu (T. urartu), and 2 cultivated species - filmy one-seeded (T. monococcum) and naked single-grain, or P. Sinska (T. sinskajae). Tetraploid series: wild species - wild spelled, or wild two-grain (T. dicoccoides), P. ararat (T. araraticum); cultivated species with filmy grain - P. Timofeeva, or zanduri (T. timopheevi), P. Karamysheva, or ancient Colchian (T. karamyschevii, T. palaeo-colchicum, T. georgicum), spelled (emmer, or two-grain) (T. dicoccum), P. Isfahan (T. ispahanicum); cultivated naked species - solid (T. durum), turgidum (T. turgidum), P. Persian (Kartalin, or wild) (T. persicum, T. carthlicum), Turanian (T. turanicum), Ethiopian (T. aethiopicum) , Polish (T. polonicum). The hexaploid series includes cultural filmy species - macha (T. macha), spelled (T. spelta), P. Vavilov, or van (T. vavilovii), P. Zhukovsky (T. zhukovskyi); cultivated naked species - soft, or ordinary (T. aestivum, T. vulgare), dense-ear or dwarf (T. compactum), ball-grained (T. sphaeracoccum), P. Petropavlovsky (T. petropavlovskyi). Known octoploid synthetic P., created in laboratory conditions: mushroom (T. fungicidum), Soviet (T. soveticum), P. Tsitsin (T. cziczinii, T. agropyrotritium). Depending on the spinousness of the spike, its color and pubescence of the spikelet scales, the color of awns and grain, P. species are subdivided into varieties, the number of which is very large.
Erythrospermum Lutescens Milturum Ferrugineum Grekum Albidum Velutinum Melanopus Gordeiformme
).
The general area of P. covers all continents of the globe. However, only soft and hard P. have spread very widely. In the north, the border of P. cultivation reaches 66 ° N. NS. (in Sweden), in the USSR in experimental crops - up to 76 ° 44 ′ N. NS. (Murmansk region); in the south - to the southern borders of Australia, South America, and Africa. P. is predominantly a steppe culture. In Europe, it occupies mainly steppe and forest-steppe zones, in North America - prairies, in South America (Argentina) - pampu, in Australia - steppe and semi-desert areas. P. is also grown in the foothill and mountainous regions (its crops are found at an altitude of up to 4 thousand meters above sea level).
Wheat production in selected countries (FAO data, 1972)
——————————————————————————————————————————————————
| Country | Area, million hectares | Productivity, q from 1 ha | Gross harvest of grain, |
| | | | million tons |
| |———————————————————————————————————————-|
| | 1948— | 1961— | 1972 | 1948— | 1961— | 1972 | 1948— | 1961— | 1972 |
| | 52 | 65 | | 52 | 65 | | 52 | 65 | |
|——————————————————————————————————————————————————|
| Total in the world | 173.3 | 210,9 | 213,5 | 9,9 | 12,1 | 16,3 | 171,2 | 254,3 | 347,6 |
| including: | 42.6 | 66.6 | 58,5 | 8,4 | 9,6 | 14,7 | 35,8 | 64,2 | 85,8 |
| USSR | 27.8 | 19.4 | 19,1 | 11,2 | 17,0 | 22,0 | 31,1 | 33,0 | 42,0 |
| USA | 23,0 | 25,2 | 28,7 | 6,9 | 8,8 | 12,1 | 15,9 | 22,2 | 34,5 |
| China | 9,3 | 13,4 | 19,2 | 6,6 | 8,4 | 13,8 | 6,1 | 11,2 | 26,5 |
| India | 4,3 | 4,3 | 4,0 | 18,3 | 29,3 | 45,8 | 7,8 | 12,5 | 18,1 |
| France | 10.5 | 11.1 | 8,6 | 12,8 | 13,8 | 16,8 | 13,4 | 15,4 | 14,5 |
| Canada | 4.8 | 8,0 | 8,7 | 10,0 | 10,8 | 13,9 | 4,8 | 8,6 | 12,1 |
| Turkey | 4,7 | 4,4 | 3,8 | 15,2 | 20,1 | 24,7 | 7,2 | 8,9 | 9,4 |
| Italy | 4,5 | 4,9 | 5,0 | 11,5 | 15,3 | 16,1 | 5,2 | 7,5 | 8,1 |
| Argentina* | 4,2 | 5,0 | 5,8 | 8,7 | 8,3 | 11,9 | 3,7 | 4,2 | 6,9 |
| Pakistan | 4.6 | 6,7 | 7,4 | 11,2 | 12,2 | 9,0 | 5,2 | 8,2 | 6,6 |
| Australia | 1.0 | 1,4 | 1,6 | 26,2 | 33,1 | 40,6 | 2,7 | 4,6 | 6,6 |
| FRG | 2,7 | 3,0 | 2,5 | 10,2 | 14,6 | 24,0 | 2,8 | 4,3 | 6,0 |
| Romania | 1,5 | 1,5 | 2,0 | 12,2 | 19,7 | 25,1 | 1,8 | 3,0 | 5,2 |
| Poland | 1,8 | 2,0 | 1,9 | 11,9 | 17,9 | 25,3 | 2,2 | 3,6 | 4,9 |
| Yugoslavia | 0,9 | 0,9 | 1,1 | 27,2 | 40,4 | 42,2 | 2,4 | 3,5 | 4,8 |
| Great Britain | 4,2 | 4,2 | 3,6 | 8,7 | 10,5 | 12,7 | 3,6 | 4,4 | 4,6 |
| Spain | 2,1 | 3,6 | 5,0 | 9,0 | 8,0 | 9,0 | 1,9 | 2,9 | 4,5 |
| Iran | | | | | | | | | |
——————————————————————————————————————————————————
* Argentina is the leading producer of wheat (almost exclusively soft spring wheat) in South America.
Botanical description. P.'s root system is fibrous, develops in the upper (arable) layer of the soil, individual roots penetrate to a depth of 180 cm. The stem is straw. Its height (40-130 cm) determines P.'s resistance to lodging and is associated with productivity. New high-yielding varieties obtained in Mexico, USA, USSR, India are distinguished by short (50-85 cm) stiff straws and are superior in yield to tall varieties. The color of the straw when ripe is white, creamy, golden yellow; in some P., purple. The leaf consists of a leaf sheath, covering the stem, and a linear leaf blade.
P.'s inflorescence is a complex ear. On the ledges of its shaft there are spikelets consisting of 2 spikelet scales and 3-5 (rarely more) flowers between them. The main spike forms are spindle-shaped (most often found in soft P.), prismatic (in hard P.), clavate; in some species and forms, the spike is branched. Its color is white, red, black; the color of the awns is the same as the coloration of the spike, in varieties with white and red spikes it may be black. P. is a self-pollinator. In most species, the flowering is closed. Open flowering is characteristic of diploid P. Fruit P. - glabrous or membranous
Caryopsis
(usually called
Corn
m),
oval, elliptical, ovoid, elongated or spherical, with a longitudinal groove on the ventral side, often white or red (reddish-brown). In consistency, the grain is mealy (soft P.) and glassy (hard and the best varieties of soft P.); 1000 grains weigh 20-50
r, y
some types and forms 70
G
and more.
Biological features. P. is an annual plant. Perennial forms have been created by hybridization of various species and genera. Wheat distinguishes between winter, spring, semi-winter forms and two-handed (yield crops during spring and autumn sowing). Winter P. has two periods of active vegetation: autumn (45-50 days), during which vegetative organs develop, and spring-summer (75-100 days), when generative organs are formed and the plant produces a crop. Spring P. is sown in spring, in areas with mild winters - also in autumn, its growing season is 70-110 days.
P. seeds begin to germinate at 1-2 ° C. The optimum temperature for obtaining friendly shoots is 12-15 ° C, growth and development 16-22 ° C, grain filling 22-25 ° C. During the growing season, winter P. needs a sum of average daily temperatures of about 2100 ° C, and for spring, at least 1300 ° C. Frost-resistant varieties of winter P. tolerate a drop in winter temperature to -20 ° C, sometimes to -35 ° C (with normal hardening and sufficient snow cover); shoots of spring P. - frosts up to -8 ° C. Of great importance for the success of winter P.
Winter hardiness of plants Plants soaking Plants bulging Plants damping out
).
The item is quite demanding on moisture, especially during the period when it enters the tube - when the grain is being poured; responsive to irrigation (intensive type varieties yield 80-100 centners per hectare of grain when irrigated). The spring drought sharply reduces the grain yield, without reducing its quality; drought during flowering causes grain through the grain, and during filling - the graininess of grain. For the formation of 1 centner of grain (with straw and chaff), P. consumes 3-3.5 kg of N, 1-1.3 kg of P2O5, and 2-3 kg of K2O. The plant consumes the largest amount of P2O5 and K2O during tillering - flowering, N - tillering - filling. The best soils for P. are chernozems; on sod-podzolic soils, it gives a good harvest when fertilized. Spring P. is especially productive when sown on virgin lands and fallow lands. The culture does not tolerate acidic soils (pH below 5.0).
The history of culture. The homeland of many species of P. (Ararat, Makha, Timofeyev, Urartu, Persian, etc.) is the USSR (Transcaucasia). Many varieties of soft P.
The greatest variety of hard P. and turgidum is found in Azerbaijan and Italy. The culture of P. was known in the countries of Western Asia (Turkey, Iraq, Syria, Iran) and Turkmenistan for 7-6 thousand years BC. e., in Greece, Bulgaria - 6-5 thousand years BC. e., Egypt - more than 4 thousand years BC. NS. In these countries, at first, filmy spelled species were cultivated, and in some places the more ancient one-grain species. In China, P. began to be cultivated about 3 thousand years BC. e., on the territory of Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Moldova - about 3-2 thousand years BC. NS. In Transcaucasia P. was known about 5-4 thousand years BC. e., in the North Caucasus - about 1-0.5 thousand years BC. e., in Belarus, Latvia and Lithuania - from the 4th - 5th centuries. n. BC, in the Urals (Perm region) - in the 9th century. P. was brought to South America in 1528, to North America (to the territory of the United States) in 1602, in Canada it began to be cultivated in 1812, and in Australia since 1788.
Economic value. P. is one of the main food crops. Wheat accounts for about 27% of the total world grain production. Grain is nutritious, high in calories, contains a lot of protein (from 10-12 to 20-25% in breeding varieties, up to 25-30% in wild species), carbohydrates (60-64%), as well as fat (2%), vitamins, enzymes, minerals, etc. It is easy to store, transport, process into flour, cereals and other products. Grain, bran and other grinding waste is a valuable concentrated feed, raw material for the feed industry. Straw is used as roughage and bedding, as well as for the production of paper, cardboard, packaging material, weaving baskets, hats, etc. Green mass P.fed to livestock.
Cultivation areas. In world agriculture, P. occupies the largest area among other grain crops. In European countries, mainly soft winter red-grain P. is grown; in the north, for example in Finland, spring varieties predominate. Hard P. is cultivated in the south of the continent (Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece, Bulgaria, and others). In Asia, P.'s crops are concentrated in China, India, Turkey, Pakistan, Iran, Syria, Iraq, and the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean (see table). Mild P. (red-grain and white-grain spring varieties) are mainly grown here. Solid poultry occupies a significant area; spelled (emmer) is also cultivated in India, and ball-grain poultry is also cultivated in India and Pakistan. and etc.). Soft winter crops are cultivated (more than half of the area), mainly red-grain varieties with glassy grain. There are significant crops of soft spring P. (red-grain and white-grain varieties) and hard P. In Canada, P. is grown mainly in the steppe provinces - Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Albert, mainly soft spring red-grain varieties with glassy grain; solid - in small areas. In Mexico, the largest crops of P. are in the state of Sonora (soft spring red-grain varieties). In Australia, soft spring P. of white-grain varieties is cultivated in all states except the Northern Territory. In Africa, P. cultivation is concentrated in the Nile Valley, the northwestern part of the continent, in the Middle East. In Egypt, soft spring P. of white-grain varieties predominates; solid - in small areas. In Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria - hard white grain varieties. In Ethiopia, a special species of P., close to hard, soft P., and spelled (emmer) is cultivated; in Kenya, red-grain and white-grain varieties of soft P.
In pre-revolutionary Russia, winter P. was grown almost exclusively in the south of the country (8.3 million hectares in 1913). In the USSR, it is cultivated in all major agricultural regions (from the south of the Arkhangelsk Region to the southern regions of Turkmenistan); The largest areas are in the Ukraine, the North Caucasus, in the Central Chernozem regions, the Volga region, in the south of Kazakhstan, and others. Soft wheat of red-grain and white-grain varieties prevails, most of which are strong wheat. Hard winter P. occupies small areas, mainly in Azerbaijan. Spring P. in Russia in 1913 was sown on 24.6 million hectares; in the USSR, its area has almost doubled (1973). cultivation areas: Kazakhstan, forest-steppe and steppe regions of Siberia, the Urals, the Volga region, the Central chernozem regions, the non-chernozem zone, and others. Mild spring crops (red-grain and white-grain varieties) are mainly sown. In 1973, firm spring poultry occupied about 5 million hectares (in the Volga region, the Urals, Kazakhstan, and the Central Chernozem regions). On small areas in the USSR, Persian, dense-spiked P., spelled (emmer) are cultivated.
Varieties. As of 1974, 73 varieties of winter P. and 107 varieties of spring were zoned in the USSR. Of the winter varieties of soft P., the largest areas in 1973 were occupied by Bezostaya 1 (authors P.P.
Lukyanenko
, P. A. Lukyanenko and N. D. Tarasenko) - 5.5 million
ha
and Mironovskaya 808 (author V.N.
Craft
)
—
5.3 ml.
ha.
These varieties are also common in Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Yugoslavia, East Germany, Czechoslovakia and other countries. The sowings of Odessa 16, Surkhak 5688 are significant; varieties of intensive type - Caucasus, Aurora, Mironovskaya jubilee, Odessa 51, Ilyichevka; new varieties - Krasnodarskaya 39, Orbita, Polesskaya 70 and others, combining high yield with increased winter hardiness. Common varieties of hard winter P. are Shark, Ak-Bugda 13, Arandany, and Jafari. The largest share in soft spring P. crops is occupied by the cultivar Saratovskaya 29 (authors A.P. Shekhurdin, V.N.Mamontova, N.N. Kulikov) - over 16 million.
ha
in 1973, as well as Bezenchukskaya 98, Albidum 43, Skala, Lutescens 758, Milturum 553, Saratovskaya 210, etc. Kharkovskaya 46 is widespread among spring solid P. (authors P.V. Kuchumov and E.E. Vatulya) - almost 4 million ...
ha
in 1973; Melianopus 26, Narodnaya, Raketa, etc. are also cultivated.
Selection P.in the USSR is based on high quality source material. For breeding varieties, hybridization is used), including intergeneric and interspecific (see.
Wheat-wheatgrass hybrids
and
Rye-wheat hybrids
), physical, chemical and natural mutagenesis, transformation of spring varieties into winter crops, and other methods. The use of ancient varieties of Russia in P. breeding is reflected in the pedigree of many of its modern varieties. Thus, the culture of soft winter vitreous P. in the United States is largely based on varieties exported from Ukraine, especially Krymka, which was used in the breeding of the Japanese variety Norin 10, the original for the best dwarf P., created in Mexico, the USA, and India. Creation and introduction into production of dwarf and semi-dwarf varieties (received the name of the "green revolution") allowed to dramatically increase productivity. For example, in Mexico, during 2 decades (1952-72), the harvest of P. increased threefold (from 8.8
c
from 1
ha
up to 27.2
c
)
,
in India - 2 times. Dwarf and semi-dwarf varieties are also used in breeding in many countries as donors of non-decay, responsiveness to irrigation and high productivity. In terms of winter hardiness, drought resistance, grain quality, ear productivity, and disease resistance, the best varieties of the USSR are superior to those of other countries. The task of breeding P. in the USSR: breeding varieties with strong short straw, disease-resistant, responsive to irrigation and high doses of fertilizers; varieties of spring P. of the intensive type, which are as close as possible in yield to winter varieties; hard P. with a minimum yield gap from soft; varieties with a high protein content in grain and especially essential amino acids - tryptophan and lysine.
Cultivation technology. Winter P. is sown on black and busy
Steam
am,
perennial grasses, after lupine, a mixture of vetch with oats, peas, early potatoes, corn for green fodder, etc. The best predecessors for spring P. are pure fallow, corn, sunflowers, legumes, potatoes, perennial grasses, winter cereals, etc. soil preparation for P.'s sowing, processing is applied according to the system
Semi-pair
a and autumn tillage (see.
Winter tillage
). For the basic fertilization of winter P., manure and composts are used 20-60
T
/
ha
(especially effective in the non-chernozem zone), mineral fertilizers 40-80
Kg
/
ha
P
2
O
5
, up to 60
kg / ha
K
2
O and 40-100
Kg
/
ha
N. In the rows when sowing, add up to 40
kg / ha
P
2
O
5
(granulated superphosphate), in top dressing - 30-60
kg / ha
N and 30
Kg
/
ha
P
2
O
5
, apply foliar dressing. Spring P. is fertilized mainly with mineral fats: the main fertilizer 30-45
Kg
/
ha
P
2
O
5
, 20—35
Kg
/
ha
K
2
O and 20-30
Kg
/
ha
N, in rows when sowing 10-15
Kg
/
ha
P
2
O
5
... Under irrigation conditions and when growing varieties of intensive type, the dose of fertilizers is increased. Sow P. as a private (row spacing 15
cm
) and narrow-row (7-8
cm
) ways; by 1
ha
sow 4-7.5 million seeds (1.8-2.5
c
/
ha
); their embedding depth is 3-8
cm.
Snow retention is carried out in the fields, in the spring crops are harrowed, destroying the soil crust, they are used to control weeds
Herbicides
... When grown under irrigated conditions, P. is watered (2-5 irrigations of 500-800
m3
/
ha
water). P. is harvested by a separate method (in the phase of waxy ripeness) and by direct combining (in the phase of full ripeness of the grain). Soil preparation is carried out with general-purpose machines (see articles
Plow Cultivator Harrow
). Sow P. with cereals
Seeder
mi, combine harvesters are used for harvesting (See.
Combine harvester
),
header (see.
Reaper
)
.
Pests of P.: grain scoop, Hessian fly, green-eyed fly, Swedish fly, harmful turtle, bread sawfly, etc .; diseases: dusty and hard smut, brown and yellow rust, powdery mildew, etc.
Lit .: Vavilov N, I., World resources of varieties of cereals, cereals, legumes, flax and their use in breeding. Wheat, M. - L., 1964; Lukyanenko P.P., Fav. works. Selection and seed production of wheat, M., 1973; Tsitsin NV, Remote hybridization of plants, M., 1954; Mironovskiye Wheat, ed. V.N. Craft, M., 1972; Prutskov F.M., Winter wheat, M., 1970; Wheat and its improvement, trans. from English, ed. M. M. Yakubtsiner, N. P. Kozmina, L. N. Lyubarsky, M., 1970; Sinskaya E. N., Historical geography of cultural flora, L., 1969; Zhukovsky P. M., Cultural plants and their relatives, 3rd ed., L., 1971; Ivanov P.K., Spring wheat, 3rd ed., M., 1971; Plant growing, 3rd ed., M., 1971.
M. M. Yakubtsiner.
Types of wheat: 1 - cultivated one-grain: 2 - Timofeeva; 3 - spelled (emmer); 4 - Persian (wild); 5 - solid; 6 - turgidum; 7 - Polish; 8 - swing; 9 - spelled; 10 - soft; 10а - spinous ear; 10b - awnless ear; 11 - dense-grained; 11a - spinous ear; 11b - awnless ear; 12 - ball-type; 13 - Vavilova (van).
Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M .: Soviet encyclopedia. 1969-1978.
